3. Robert C. Hilderbrand, Power and the People: Executive Management of Public Opinion in Foreign Affairs, 1897—1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981), 117.
4. “Lansing Gags State Department,” undated, probably May 1917, Box 3, Arthur Sweetser Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
5. Wilson quoted in Albert H. Sanford, “Why the United States is at War,” March 1918, Bulletin of the State Normal School, La Crosse, Wisconsin, Committee on Public Information (CPI), Record Group (RG) 63, Entry 13, Box 1, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Archives II, College Park, Maryland.
6. Tumulty to Wilson, May 8, 1917, Container 48, Tumulty Papers.
7. Larry Wayne Ward, The Motion Picture Goes to War: The U.S. Government Film Effort during World War I (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1985), 24; Hilderbrand, Power and the People, 104.
8. Woodrow Wilson, “Address at the Salesmanship Congress,” July 10, 1916, in President Wilson’s State Papers and Addresses (New York: Review of Reviews Company, 1918), 279— 83; Robert H. Zieger, America’s Great War: World War I and the American Experience (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), 41.
9. Reinhard R. Doerries, Imperial Challenge: Ambassador Count Bernstorff and German-American Relations, 1908—1917 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 141—90; Harold Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in World War I (1927; reprinted, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), 149—51; Michael Sanders and Philip Taylor, British Propaganda in the First World War, 1914—1918 (London: Macmillan, 1982), 170.
10. Zieger, America’s Great War, 22—25.
11. John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 232—37, 249—56, 422; Nicoletta F. Gullace, “Sexual Violence and Family Honor: British Propaganda and International Law during the First World War,” American Historical Review 102 (June 1997): 714—47.
12. Richard J. Barnet, The Rockets’ Red Glare: When America Goes to War: The Presidents and the People (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 154; Randolph Bourne, The History of a Literary Radical (New York: S. A. Russell, 1956), 215; Notes, February 4, 1917, Box 3, Sweetser Papers; Walter Karp, The Politics of War (New York: Franklin Square Press, 2003), 238.
13. Cecilia Elizabeth O’Leary, To Die For: The Paradox of American Patriotism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 225.
14. Tumulty to Wilson, January 17, 1916, Container 47, Tumulty Papers.
15. Hilderbrand, Power and the People, 136—37.
16. “Interview with Lansing,” November 10, 1916, Box 3, Sweetser Papers.
17. Notes, March 28 (probably 1917), Box 3, Sweetser Papers.
18. Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), 125.
19. Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 4.
20. Jennifer D. Keene, Doughboys, the Great War, and the Remaking of America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 1—34.
21. Zieger, America’s Great War, 79.
22. George Creel, How We Advertised America (1920; репринтное издание, New York: Arno Press, 1972), 4; Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 24.
23. Creel, How We Advertised, XIV.
24. Tumulty to Wilson, May 31, 1917, Container 48, Tumulty Papers.
25. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 193.
26. July 27 (probably 1917), Box 3, Sweetser Papers.
27. Editorial, New Republic, May 12, 1917; “Lansing Gags State Department,” Sweetser Papers; Hilderbrand, Power and the People, 146—47.
28. “Bulletin for Cartoonists,” June 21, July 13, August 24, August 27, September 28, and October 26, 1918, CPI, RG 63, Entry 19, Box 2, NARA; “Report of the Bureau of Cartoons,” September 9, 1918, CPI, RG 63, Entry 13, Box 1, NARA.
29. CPI, German War Practices, ed. Dana C. Munro of Princeton University, George C. Sellery of the University of Wisconsin, and August C. Krey of the University of Minnesota, November 15, 1917.
30. Sanford, “Why the United States is at War.”
31. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 150; Knock, To End All Wars, 130.
32. Walton Rawls, Wake Up America! World War I and the American Poster (New York: Abbeville Press, 1988), 12; Susan Zeiger, In Uncle Sam’s Service: Women Workers with the American Expeditionary Force, 1917—1919 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 145.
33. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 165.
34. CPI Division of Advertising, “The German Idea,” RG 63, Entry 13, Box 1, NARA.
35. CPI Division of Advertising, November 1917—June 1918, RG 63, Entry 13, Box 1 and Entry 20, Box 1, NARA.
36. Zieger, America’s Great War, 124.
37. Richard M. Fried, The Russians Are Coming! The Russians Are Coming!: Pageantry and Patriotism in Cold-War America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 6—7.
38. CPI Division of Four Minute Men, “Danger to America,” Bulletin No. 31, May 27, 1918, RG 63, Entry 62, Box 2, NARA.
39. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 126.
40. Hilderbrand, Power and the People, 159.
41. Arthur Sweetser to Kendall Banning, undated reply to letter dated May 22, 1917, Box 3, Sweetser Papers.
42. Ward, Motion Picture Goes to War, 25—26.
43. Pershing’s Crusaders (1918), Records of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, RG 111-H-1213, NARA; Hart, Director of CPI Division of Films to August P. Lindlar and Hart to Augustus Thomas, May 10, 1918, CPI, RG 63, Entry 62, Box 2, NARA; Creel, How We Advertised, 121—23.
44. The Training of Colored Troops (1918), RG 111-H-1211, NARA; Thomas Winter, “The Training of Colored Troops: A Cinematic Effort to Promote National Cohesion,” in Hollywood’s World War I: Motion Picture Images, ed. Peter C. Rollins and John E. O’Connor (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1997), 13—25.
45. Rufus Steele, “Progress Report of the Department of Scenarios and Outside Production,” August 10, 1918, CPI, RG 63, Entry 13, Box 1, NARA; According to Larry Wayne Ward, none of these newsreel-style films survives under the original titles in the Signal Corps collection at the National Archives. The Signal Corps reedited most of these films in the 1930s. Ward, Motion Picture Goes to War, 103.
46. The Unbeliever (Alan Crosland, 1918); Shoulder Arms (Charles Chaplin, 1918).
47. The Birth of a Nation (D. W. Griffith, 1915); Ward, Motion Picture Goes to War, 54; Russell Merritt, “D. W. Griffith Directs the Great War: The Making of Hearts of the World,” Quarterly Review of Film Studies (Winter 1981): 50.
48. Hearts of the World (D. W. Griffith, 1918); Leslie Midkiff DeBauche, “Melodrama and the World War I Film,” in The Bounds of Representation: Censorship, the Visible, Modes of Representation in Film, ed. Leonardo Quaresima, Alessandra Raengo, and Laura Vichi (Udine, Italy: VI International Film Studies Conference, University of Udine, 1999), 177—86.
49. Merritt, “D. W. Griffith Directs the Great War,” 55-56.
50. Liberty Loan Drive Films, RG 111-H-1133, NARA; Leslie Midkiff DeBauche, Reel Patriotism: The Movies and World War I (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 71—136.
51. O’Leary, To Die For, 235, 241.
52. Wilson to Creel, February 28, 1918, Container 3, George Creel Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; Christopher Capozzola, Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 181—85.
53. Zieger, America’s Great War, 78.
54. The War Department oversaw telephone and telegraph censorship, the navy cable censorship, and the post office mail censorship. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 219—21; John D. Stevens, “When Sedition Laws Were Enforced: Wisconsin in World War I,” Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters 58 (1970): 39—60.
55. President Wilson later commuted the sentence of Spirit of ‘76 producer Robert Goldstein. Ward, Motion Picture Goes to War, 118—19; Capozzola, Uncle Sam Wants You, 144—60; Stevens, “When Sedition Laws Were Enforced,” 43.
56. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 116—17.
57. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 9; Arthur Bullard, “Democracy and Diplomacy,” Atlantic Monthly, April 1917, 491—99.
58. The President to Foreign Correspondents, April 8, 1918, Container 48, Tumulty Papers.
59. Knightley, First Casualty, 133, 139; Michael S. Sweeney, The Military and the Press: An Uneasy Truce (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 59.
60. For more on the wartime practices of posing, cropping, retouching, and faking photographs see Susan D. Moeller, Shooting War: Photography and the American Experience of Combat (New York: Basic Books, 1989), 130—52.
61. Heywood Broun, The A.E.F.: With General Pershing and the American Forces (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1918), 295—96; Keene, Doughboys, 77.
62. Kennedy, Over Here, 212.
63. Will Judy, A Soldier’s Diary (Chicago: Judy Publishing Company, 1930), 35, 125.
64. Keene, Doughboys, 46—51; Zieger, America’s Great War, 105—7.
65. “He Will Come Back a Better Man!,” Collier’s Weekly, November 30, 1918, 22.
66. Ronald Schaffer, America in the Great War: The Rise of the War Welfare State (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 208—11.
67. Judy, Soldier’s Diary, 211—12.
68. Merritt, “D. W. Griffith Directs the War,” 51, 59.
69. Woodrow Wilson, “Address of the President,” January 8, 1918.
70. James R. Mock and Cedric Larson, Words That Won the War: The Story of the Committee on Public Information, 1917—1919 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1939), 247.
71. Wilson quoted in Lloyd C. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913—1923 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 1.
72. Zieger, America’s Great War, 188—94.
73. CPI Division of Four Minute Men, “Instructions to Four Minute Men,” May 27, 1918, RG 63. Entry 62, Box 2, NARA.
74. Kerney to Tumulty, October 2, 1918.
75. Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1980), 157.
76. Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 3, 201; Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2001), 381—408; Newton D. Baker to Arthur Sweetser, July 22, 1920, Box 30, Sweetser Papers.
77. Hilderbrand, Power and the People, 177; Sweetser to Newton D. Baker, February 4, 1919, Box 30, Sweetser Papers.
78. Admiral Cary T. Grayson to Tumulty, April 10, 1919, Container 44, Tumulty Papers.
79. Tumulty to Grayson, December 16, 1918, Container 44; President to Tumulty, cable from Paris received December 19, 1918, Container 48, Tumulty Papers.
80. Diary, March 5, 1919, Sweetser Papers.
81. Knock, To End All Wars, 237, 241; Kennedy, Over Here, 360; Kerney to Tumulty, January 9, 1919, Box 45, Tumulty Papers.
82. Tumulty to Wilson, September 20, 1919, Container 50, Tumulty Papers.
83. Arthur Link, ed., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 63 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 23, 47, 115, 279, 318—19, 325.
84. Jonathan Rosenberg, “For Democracy, Not Hypocrisy: World War and Race Relations in the United States, 1914—1919,” International History Review 21 (September 1999): 618—20.
85. Edward L. Bernays, Biography of an Idea: Memoirs of a Public Relations Counsel (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965), 287—95.
86. Bourne, History of a Literary Radical, 225—35; Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (1922; reprinted, New York: Free Press, 1965), 257.
87. Kennedy, Over Here, 218; Frederick Palmer, America in France (New York; Dodd, Mead, 1919), 4; Judy, Soldier’s Diary, 214.
Глава 3. Хорошая война. Борьба за лучшую жизнь во время Второй мировой войны
«Сегодня мы боремся за безопасность, за прогресс и за мир не только для себя, но и для всех людей, не только для одного поколения, но и для всех поколений. Мы боремся за то, чтобы очистить мир от древнего зла, древних недугов.»
Президент Франклин Д. Рузвельт, 1942 год.
«Люди видят, что нужен новый мир… Но они чертовски скептичны»
Реакция граждан на опрос Управления военной информации, 1943 год.
ПРЕЗИДЕНТ ФРАНКЛИН Д. РУЗВЕЛЬТ заявил, что Соединенные Штаты полны решимости не только выиграть Вторую мировую войну, но и обеспечить мир, который последует за этим. Выиграть войну было бы непросто. К началу 1942 года нацистская Германия завоевала большую часть Европы. После внезапного нападения на Тихоокеанский флот США в Перл-Харборе в декабре 1941 года японцы разгромили американцев на Филиппинах и британцев в Сингапуре. Соединенные Штаты начали мобилизацию, но пройдут месяцы, прежде чем их силы будут готовы сразиться с врагом. Тем временем они рассчитывали на то, что их основные союзники, Великобритания и Советский Союз, продолжат борьбу. Что касается обеспечения мира, администрация Рузвельта планировала добиться успеха там, где Вудро Вильсон потерпел неудачу, убедившись, что на этот раз Соединенные Штаты возьмут на себя роль международного миротворца. Рузвельт был уверен, что экономическая и военная мощь Соединенных Штатов обеспечит его послевоенное доминирование над альтернативными планами своих союзников военного времени. Американский интернационализм предполагал американское лидерство.
Администрация Рузвельта хорошо понимала, что ей придется убедить американский народ придерживаться интернационалистской внешней политики. Разочарованные опытом Первой мировой войны, американцы хотели держаться подальше от второй. Подвергшиеся нападению, они сражались за выживание, а не за идеалы.1 Чиновники знали, что в условиях тотальной войны размахивать флажками будет недостаточно. Миллионы должны сражаться, работать на производстве, распределять рационы, сохранять и покупать облигации. В апреле 1942 года в докладной записке, подготовленной Арчибальдом Маклишем, поэтом, библиотекарем Конгресса и пропагандиста военного времени, был поднят вопрос: «Что утвердительно и эффективно объединит нацию в предстоящей отчаянной войне?»
